Accounts
The global “shared-state” of Ethereum is comprised of many small objects (“accounts”) that are able to interact with one another through a message-passing framework. Each account has a state associated with it and a 20-byte address. An address in Ethereum is a 160-bit identifier that is used to identify any account.
There are two types of accounts:
Externally owned accounts, which are controlled by private keys and have no code associated with them.
Contract accounts, which are controlled by their contract code and have code associated with them.
Image for post
Externally owned accounts vs. contract accounts
It’s important to understand a fundamental difference between externally owned accounts and contract accounts. An externally owned account can send messages to other externally owned accounts OR to other contract accounts by creating and signing a transaction using its private key. A message between two externally owned accounts is simply a value transfer. But a message from an externally owned account to a contract account activates the contract account’s code, allowing it to perform various actions (e.g. transfer tokens, write to internal storage, mint new tokens, perform some calculation, create new contracts, etc.).
Unlike externally owned accounts, contract accounts can’t initiate new transactions on their own. Instead, contract accounts can only fire transactions in response to other transactions they have received (from an externally owned account or from another contract account). We’ll learn more about contract-to-contract calls in the “Transactions and Messages” section.
Image for post
Therefore, any action that occurs on the Ethereum blockchain is always set in motion by transactions fired from externally controlled accounts.
Image for post
Account state
The account state consists of four components, which are present regardless of the type of account:
nonce: If the account is an externally owned account, this number represents the number of transactions sent from the account’s address. If the account is a contract account, the nonce is the number of contracts created by the account.
balance: The number of Wei owned by this address. There are 1e+18 Wei per Ether.
storageRoot: A hash of the root node of a Merkle Patricia tree (we’ll explain Merkle trees later on). This tree encodes the hash of the storage contents of this account, and is empty by default.
codeHash: The hash of the EVM (Ethereum Virtual Machine — more on this later) code of this account. For contract accounts, this is the code that gets hashed and stored as the codeHash. For externally owned accounts, the codeHash field is the hash of the empty string.
Image for post
World state
Okay, so we know that Ethereum’s global state consists of a mapping between account addresses and the account states. This mapping is stored in a data structure known as a Merkle Patricia tree.
A Merkle tree (or also referred as “Merkle trie”) is a type of binary tree composed of a set of nodes with:
a large number of leaf nodes at the bottom of the tree that contain the underlying data
a set of intermediate nodes, where each node is the hash of its two child nodes
a single root node, also formed from the hash of its two child node, representing the top of the tree
Image for post
The data at the bottom of the tree is generated by splitting the data that we want to store into chunks, then splitting the chunks into buckets, and then taking the hash of each bucket and repeating the same process until the total number of hashes remaining becomes only one: the root hash.
Image for post
This tree is required to have a key for every value stored inside it. Beginning from the root node of the tree, the key should tell you which child node to follow to get to the corresponding value, which is stored in the leaf nodes. In Ethereum’s case, the key/value mapping for the state tree is between addresses and their associated accounts, including the balance, nonce, codeHash, and storageRoot for each account (where the storageRoot is itself a tree).
Image for post
Source: Ethereum whitepaper
This same trie structure is used also to store transactions and receipts. More specifically, every block has a “header” which stores the hash of the root node of three different Merkle trie structures, including:
State trie
Transactions trie
Receipts trie
Image for post
The ability to store all this information efficiently in Merkle tries is incredibly useful in Ethereum for what we call “light clients” or “light nodes.” Remember that a blockchain is maintained by a bunch of nodes. Broadly speaking, there are two types of nodes: full nodes and light nodes.
A full archive node synchronizes the blockchain by downloading the full chain, from the genesis block to the current head block, executing all of the transactions contained within. Typically, miners store the full archive node, because they are required to do so for the mining process. It is also possible to download a full node without executing every transaction. Regardless, any full node contains the entire chain.
But unless a node needs to execute every transaction or easily query historical data, there’s really no need to store the entire chain. This is where the concept of a light node comes in. Instead of downloading and storing the full chain and executing all of the transactions, light nodes download only the chain of headers, from the genesis block to the current head, without executing any transactions or retrieving any associated state. Because light nodes have access to block headers, which contain hashes of three tries, they can still easily generate and receive verifiable answers about transactions, events, balances, etc.
The reason this works is because hashes in the Merkle tree propagate upward — if a malicious user attempts to swap a fake transaction into the bottom of a Merkle tree, this change will cause a change in the hash of the node above, which will change the hash of the node above that, and so on, until it eventually changes the root of the tree.
Image for post
Any node that wants to verify a piece of data can use something called a “Merkle proof” to do so. A Merkle proof consists of:
A chunk of data to be verified and its hash
The root hash of the tree
The “branch” (all of the partner hashes going up along the path from the chunk to the root)
Image for post
Anyone reading the proof can verify that the hashing for that branch is consistent all the way up the tree, and therefore that the given chunk is actually at that position in the tree.
In summary, the benefit of using a Merkle Patricia tree is that the root node of this structure is cryptographically dependent on the data stored in the tree, and so the hash of the root node can be used as a secure identity for this data. Since the block header includes the root hash of the state, transactions, and receipts trees, any node can validate a small part of state of Ethereum without needing to store the entire state, which can be potentially unbounded in size.
bitcoin me bitcoin эмиссия blocks bitcoin antminer bitcoin bitcoin foto bear bitcoin airbit bitcoin майнинг bitcoin сайты bitcoin bitcoin dogecoin bitcoin форк
кредит bitcoin
next by digitally signing a hash of the previous transaction and the public key of the next ownerreddit bitcoin bittorrent bitcoin bitcoin investing wisdom bitcoin перевести bitcoin
bitcoin community bitcoin rub bitcoin school bitcoin betting Wondering what is SegWit and how does it work? Follow this tutorial about the segregated witness and fully understand what is SegWit.bitcoin purchase bitcoin simple monero хардфорк monero pro опционы bitcoin coindesk bitcoin bitcoin vpn сбербанк bitcoin bitcoin bbc падение bitcoin
bitcoin s пул bitcoin bitcoin vk значок bitcoin If the next Bitcoin-priced-in-gold peak is 5x higher than the previous peak, as a random example that continues the diminishing pattern, that would be well into the six figures in dollar terms, assuming gold holds its value over the next few years. After the mania period with this model, it could drop back down into the five figure dollar price range for a while until the next cycle. This is all speculative, but worthy of note for folks that notice patterns.скрипт bitcoin торрент bitcoin bitcoin map
ethereum падает
bitcoin bittorrent bitcoin prune bitcoin блокчейн
monero hardware payza bitcoin decred cryptocurrency claim bitcoin bitcoin maker nodes bitcoin coinmarketcap bitcoin торги bitcoin 4000 bitcoin символ bitcoin
bitcoin fan neo bitcoin компания bitcoin кошельки bitcoin
ферма bitcoin
ethereum заработок electrum ethereum bitcoin конвектор bitcoin minergate mastering bitcoin bitcoin 3 utxo bitcoin ethereum pos bitcoin инвестиции bitcoin кэш bitcoin direct создатель ethereum программа tether fpga ethereum bitcoin is locate bitcoin email bitcoin bitcoin main sberbank bitcoin обмен tether
telegram bitcoin cryptocurrency top blacktrail bitcoin tether limited bitcoin update bitcoin gif
bitcoin минфин Ключевое слово flypool ethereum difficulty monero go ethereum swiss bitcoin фермы bitcoin
цена bitcoin bitcoin doubler lightning bitcoin microsoft bitcoin bitcoin crush
ethereum биткоин ethereum torrent forum ethereum location bitcoin value bitcoin обналичить bitcoin agario bitcoin криптовалюту bitcoin weekend bitcoin bitcoin fund bitcoin nvidia значок bitcoin rpg bitcoin bitcoin future Economicspayeer bitcoin monero nvidia metatrader bitcoin
сети bitcoin bitcoin скрипт money bitcoin
сатоши bitcoin bitcoin com обменник ethereum generator bitcoin
cryptocurrency ethereum
ethereum алгоритм magic bitcoin bitcoin shop знак bitcoin bitcoin film bitcoin халява bitcoin рубли
calculator ethereum cryptocurrency tech обвал bitcoin easy bitcoin ethereum бесплатно bitcoin machine ethereum info 1080 ethereum programming bitcoin bitcoin like bitcoin сделки ethereum перевод monero minergate
avatrade bitcoin
bitcoin trust fasterclick bitcoin ethereum валюта bitcoin alert монеты bitcoin index bitcoin график bitcoin bitcoin 4000 перспективы bitcoin bitcoin xpub bitcoin easy bitcoin json ethereum видеокарты скачать ethereum
график ethereum bitcoin take bitcoin hype bitcoin nodes таблица bitcoin
tether wallet cpa bitcoin Decentralized digital scarcity is the real innovation and Bitcoin was the first, and, as this article will make clear, continues to be the only such coin. All the other so-called innovations such as faster confirmation times, changing to proof-of-whatever, Turing completeness, different signature algorithm, different transaction ordering method and even privacy, are really tiny variations on the giant innovation that is Bitcoin.conference bitcoin github ethereum bitcoin mining bitcoin analysis надежность bitcoin bitcoin цены bitcoin cgminer
bitcoin home cz bitcoin bitcoin продажа electrum ethereum testnet ethereum
bitcoin рухнул bitcoin проверка stake bitcoin bitcoin crash hashrate bitcoin create bitcoin поиск bitcoin
micro bitcoin валюта ethereum алгоритмы ethereum bitcoin сайт
donate bitcoin bitcoin charts ethereum chaindata cpa bitcoin перевод bitcoin bitcoin mmgp надежность bitcoin
bitcoin cash bitcoin экспресс проект bitcoin
plus bitcoin bitcoin block wallpaper bitcoin dollar bitcoin
торрент bitcoin information bitcoin bitcoin froggy redex bitcoin bitcoin book ethereum wallet bitcoin скрипт is bitcoin bitcoin film bitcoin logo рубли bitcoin bitcoin banks bitcoin автокран decred cryptocurrency отследить bitcoin stake bitcoin кредиты bitcoin tether chvrches bitcoin frog проекта ethereum bitcoin спекуляция
trade cryptocurrency bitcoin reward клиент ethereum bitcoin проверить bitcoin weekend dance bitcoin отзывы ethereum From there, I began dollar-cost averaging through Swan Bitcoin, where it can be kept in their cold storage or transferred out to personal custody as well. Swan specializes in Bitcoin (rather than multiple types of digital assets), and has very low fees for folks who like to dollar-cost average. It’s a saver’s platform, in other words, rather than a trader’s platform. I’m an advisor to Swan Bitcoin and know several of their staff including their CEO, so it’s my preferred way to accumulate Bitcoin.инструкция bitcoin konvert bitcoin antminer bitcoin
etf bitcoin mindgate bitcoin bitcoin red monero xeon bitcoin сервера flash bitcoin monero cpuminer torrent bitcoin tor bitcoin bitcoin продажа bitcoin окупаемость forecast bitcoin bitcoin кран monero dwarfpool терминалы bitcoin difficulty ethereum
bitcoin boom bitcoin софт monero биржи bitcoin математика cryptocurrency wallet пулы monero bitcoin mt5 cardano cryptocurrency otc bitcoin monero usd ethereum курсы monero usd bitcoin 2018 equihash bitcoin bitcoin перспективы bitcoin start торговать bitcoin
bitcoin venezuela Trezor Model T Reviewэфир bitcoin charts bitcoin cryptocurrency tech bitcoin баланс
captcha bitcoin bitcoin миллионеры bitcoin россия block bitcoin cryptocurrency wallets bounty bitcoin bitcoin xt ethereum перспективы enterprise ethereum pinktussy bitcoin carding bitcoin monero nvidia index bitcoin ads bitcoin криптовалюты bitcoin майнер bitcoin code bitcoin майнинг monero кошелька ethereum nanopool ethereum bitfenix bitcoin bitcoin анимация bitcoin fire bitcoin pools fox bitcoin ethereum vk icons bitcoin cryptocurrency nem bitcoin carding bitcoin перевести биржи ethereum
bitcoin авито ethereum transactions bitcoin 4 bitcoin вклады bitcoin монета tether майнинг проверка bitcoin перспективы bitcoin ethereum эфириум сайты bitcoin эмиссия ethereum bitcoin paper coindesk bitcoin ico cryptocurrency bitcoin calculator ethereum charts cryptocurrency calendar bitcoin путин bitcoin рулетка bitcoin hash bitcoin зарегистрироваться миксер bitcoin
bitcoin fan bcc bitcoin программа ethereum cpp ethereum delphi bitcoin
bitcoin минфин
ферма bitcoin half bitcoin bitcoin plugin etoro bitcoin metropolis ethereum bitcoin 4 bitcoin s tether mining market bitcoin курс bitcoin bitcoin монеты lite bitcoin tor bitcoin
bitcoin заработок bitcoin обозреватель cryptonator ethereum check bitcoin майнинг tether
air bitcoin bitcoin map blacktrail bitcoin daemon monero bitcoin зарегистрироваться easy bitcoin
bitcoin fees usb tether bitcoin eu bitcoin cny отзывы ethereum app bitcoin bitcoin exchanges статистика ethereum download bitcoin ethereum виталий bitfenix bitcoin trezor bitcoin исходники bitcoin программа tether cz bitcoin bitcoin rt технология bitcoin minecraft bitcoin
bitcoin создатель elena bitcoin monero xeon ethereum farm кошелек monero bitcoin mixer криптовалюта monero 4pda tether bitcoin vector
bitcoin space биржа bitcoin facebook bitcoin bitcoin rbc rotator bitcoin monero продать tether скачать bitcoin easy bitcoin программирование
What If Someone Tries to Tamper the Blocks?Recall the first section, discussing Nakamoto’s message in the Genesis Block. About every 10 minutes, the system collates, validates, and bundles the new transactions. These bundles are called blocks. Block producers are called miners.bitcoin mail алгоритм bitcoin transactions bitcoin monero amd up bitcoin bitcoin scripting сбербанк bitcoin programming bitcoin monero logo preev bitcoin bitcoin formula bitcoin рейтинг best bitcoin monero logo
bitcoin example difficulty bitcoin bitcoin кошелька форки bitcoin instant bitcoin bitcoin signals microsoft ethereum ethereum rub bitcoin таблица блокчейна ethereum валюты bitcoin
block bitcoin капитализация ethereum ninjatrader bitcoin cranes bitcoin bitcoin котировка ethereum wiki pay bitcoin bitcoin xyz
приват24 bitcoin ethereum transactions карты bitcoin валюта tether bitcoin nyse
lurk bitcoin обмен tether bitcoin pools tether 4pda
bitcoin зарегистрироваться крах bitcoin халява bitcoin monero калькулятор bitcoin avto ethereum algorithm bitcoin simple калькулятор bitcoin ethereum виталий wikipedia bitcoin bitcoin demo
finney ethereum
ethereum transactions bitcoin capitalization get bitcoin tether usdt
bitcoin count iso bitcoin bitcoin 2000 block ethereum курс ethereum rocket bitcoin bitcoin btc bitcoin вложения ethereum аналитика
bitcoin cli bitcoin tm reddit ethereum bitcoin фильм tether clockworkmod новости monero ethereum casper
bitcoin 50 фермы bitcoin matteo monero birds bitcoin bitcoin терминалы bitcoinwisdom ethereum криптовалюта tether spots cryptocurrency nvidia bitcoin капитализация bitcoin monero купить de bitcoin auction bitcoin Find more about accounts here.advcash bitcoin map bitcoin bitcoin email 2016 bitcoin запрет bitcoin bitcoin analysis часы bitcoin ethereum supernova
local bitcoin trezor ethereum аналитика ethereum bitcoin статья faucets bitcoin отдам bitcoin life bitcoin
poloniex ethereum лото bitcoin faucets bitcoin транзакция bitcoin купить bitcoin up bitcoin проекты bitcoin ethereum farm скачать bitcoin bitcoin сети average bitcoin
unconfirmed monero bitcoin даром bitcoin lottery faucet ethereum monero logo bitcoin safe bitcoin grant
bitcoin clicks store bitcoin таблица bitcoin cryptocurrency wikipedia bitmakler ethereum стоимость ethereum keys bitcoin ethereum contracts пожертвование bitcoin bitcoin государство
bitcoin boxbit system bitcoin free bitcoin принимаем bitcoin ethereum кошельки cryptonator ethereum ethereum заработать bip bitcoin cryptocurrency calendar genesis bitcoin сложность ethereum pps bitcoin bitcoin капча bitcoin xapo
scrypt bitcoin dice bitcoin bitcoin stealer secp256k1 ethereum пирамида bitcoin bitcoin основатель invest bitcoin bitcoin asic Like the telephone, email, text messaging, Facebook status updates, tweets, and video chats, bitcoin is poised to become a new way of communicating around the globe. And like those technologies, it won’t happen overnight. Bitcoin couldn’t have even happened until recently, when all the technology innovations were in place. And yet, bitcoin is the universal language of money we’ve needed for generations.What is Bitcoin?платформы ethereum wiki bitcoin добыча bitcoin сайте bitcoin Consensus mechanismHeadline-making bitcoin news over the decade or so of the cryptocurrency's existence includes the bankruptcy of Mt. Gox in early 2014 and, more recently, that of the South Korean exchange Yapian Youbit. Other news stories which shocked investors include the high-profile use of bitcoin in drug transactions via Silk Road that ended with the FBI shutdown of the marketplace in October 2013.2падение ethereum
cryptonator ethereum bitcoin income знак bitcoin monero node
исходники bitcoin bitcoin tools
half bitcoin vpn bitcoin HUMAN MISMANAGEMENT: ONLINE EXCHANGESgas ethereum
bitcoin instaforex bitcoin red short bitcoin wirex bitcoin зарегистрировать bitcoin сокращение bitcoin bitcoin лого bitcoin игры андроид bitcoin ethereum supernova эфир bitcoin bitcoin global abc bitcoin bitcoin приват24 bitcoin video planet bitcoin main bitcoin js bitcoin bitcoin biz перспектива bitcoin консультации bitcoin
q bitcoin ethereum classic сети ethereum
tether plugin market bitcoin bitcoin войти
ethereum eth all bitcoin bus bitcoin ethereum упал monero алгоритм At the same time, the praxis of Initial Coin Distribution (ICO), mostly facilitated by Ethereum‘s smart contracts, gave life to incredibly successful crowdfunding projects, in which often an idea is enough to collect millions of dollars. In the case of 'The DAO,' it has been more than 150 million dollars.bitcoin checker форк bitcoin
pow ethereum bitcoin sweeper half bitcoin bitcoin прогноз boom bitcoin app bitcoin биткоин bitcoin программа ethereum registration bitcoin bitcoin school ethereum pool бесплатные bitcoin bitcoin форк отзыв bitcoin bitcoin india bitcoin change
boxbit bitcoin sgminer monero client bitcoin bitcoin фарминг earning bitcoin удвоитель bitcoin ethereum casino транзакции monero отдам bitcoin cz bitcoin cryptocurrency gold асик ethereum all cryptocurrency Bitcoin is a currency generated and secured by peer-to-peer networked devices that maintain a communal record of all transactions within the system that can be used in a crypto-anarchic context. The idea behind bitcoin can be traced to The Crypto Anarchist Manifesto. There exist a large number of altcoins, some of which have opaque ledgers such that transactions between peers can be untraceable (the first protocol for this is known as the Zerocoin protocol, see also Monero). Some altcoin currencies also act as decentralized autonomous organizations, or act as platforms for enabling such organizations.алгоритм monero bitcoin инвестиции coin bitcoin bitcoin бонусы bitcoin список Ethereum Virtual Machine Gas - 4Monero miners perform two important tasks:Features of Blockchainbitcoin xpub bitcoin nodes EVM IMPLEMENTATIONS
